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CRIMINALIZING YOUTH POLITICS/A CRIMINALIZAÇÃO DAS PRÁTICAS POLÍTICAS DA JUVENTUDE
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.22409/rcj.v4i7.365Palabras clave:
Cyberpolitics, Political Science, DDoS, Hacktivism.Resumen
Abstract: The present article aims to analyze the contemporary political theories which
affirm that the use of the new media - mainly the internet - for politics online would replace
more traditional means of democratic participation. Its scope is understanding the political
motivations of the individuals - primarily the youth - involved in these direct actions like the
use of DDoS, and also its criminalization by the State, indispensable to the understanding this
new form of political activism.
Keywords: Slacktivism; DDoS; Hacktivism; Cyberpolitics; Democratic Participation.
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Citas
AMOROSO, Edward. Cyber Attacks: protecting National Infrastructure. Boston:
Elsevier, 2013.
AOUDE, Ibrahim. Arab Americans and the Criminalization of Dissent. Social Analysis: The
International Journal of Social and Cultural Practice, 46, (1), p. 125-128, 2002.
ARVANITAKIS, James; MARREN, Siobhan. Putting the Politics back into Politics: Young
people and Democracy in Australia: Discussion paper. Sydney: University of Western
Sydney, 2009.
AUSTRALIAN FEDERAL POLICE, ND. High Tech Crime. Available in:
<http://www.afp.gov.au/en/policing/cybercrime/hightech-crime.aspx#distributed-denial-ofservice-
attacks>.
BAT-BLUE NETWORKS. NullCrew Hacks World Health Organization and Leaks 568 User
Credentials, 2012. Acessible in:
<https://www.facebook.com/BatBlueNetworks/posts/446104122090539>.
BAUERLEIN, Mark. The Dumbest Generation: How the Digital Age Stupefies Young
Americans and Jeopardizes Our Future. New York: Penguin: 2009.
BAUMAN, Zygmunt., Liquid Modernity. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2000.
BECK, Ulrich. Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity. London: Sage, 1992.
BENNETT, W. L., WELLS, Chris., and RANK, Allison. Young citizens and civic learning:
two paradigms of citizenship in the digital age. Citizenship Studies, 13(2) p. 105-120, 2009.
BERRERDA, L., 2015 cited in “The PP Criticized the Support of the Comedian Facu Pable
Iglesiuas Diaz”. Not anything goes, ABC. Available in:
www.culturasjuridicas.uff.br
20 Revista Culturas Jurídicas/Legal Cultures Journal, Vol. 4, Núm. 7, 2017, January/April.
<https://translate.google.com.au/translate?
hl=en&sl=es&u=http://www.abc.es/espana/20150110/abci-iglesias-facu-diaz-
201501091656.html&prev=search-10-January>.
BESSANT, Judith. Democracy Bytes: New Media, New Politics and Generational
Change. London: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2014.
______. Mixed Messages: Youth Participation and Democratic Practice, Australian Journal
of Political Science, 39 (2), p. 387-404, 2004.
BENKLER, Yochai. A Free Irresponsible Press: Wikileaks and the Battle Over the Soul of the
Networked Fourth Estate. Harvard. C.R.-C.L. L. Rev. 46, p. 311-397, 2011.
BRABAZON, Honor. Protecting Whose Security? Anti-terrorism Legislation and the
criminalization of Dissent, YCIS Working Paper 43, York University, Toronto, 2006.
COHEN, Cathy, and KAHNE, Joseph. Participatory Politics: New media and Youth political
Action, 2012. Available in:
<http://ypp.dmlcentral.net/sites/all/files/publications/YPP_Survey_Report_FULL.pdf>.
Access in: 16 dez. 2013.
COHEN, Stanley. Folk Devils and Moral Panics. London: MacGibbon and Kee, 1972.
COLEMAN, Gabriella. The ethics of digital direct action Denial-of-service attacks and
similar tactics are becoming more widely used as protest tools. Aljazeera, 2011. Available in:
<http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2011/08/20118308455825769.html>.
COLEMAN, Gabriella. Hacker, Hoaxer, Whitstleblower, Spy: The many faces of
Anonymous. London: Verson, 2014.
DITTRICH, D., MIRKOVIC, J., REICHER, S., et.al , Internet Denial of service attack and
Defense Mechanism. Pearson, 2005.
www.culturasjuridicas.uff.br
21 Revista Culturas Jurídicas/Legal Cultures Journal, Vol. 4, Núm. 7, 2017, January/April.
DOYLE, Charles. “Cybercrime: A Sketch of 18 U.S.C. 1030 and Related Federal Criminal
Laws, Congressional Research Service,, Washington, 7-5700, 2014, www.crs.gov RS 20830.
FARDON, Zachary, 2014 cited in US Attorney’s Office, 16 June 2014. Available in:
<http://www.fbi.gov/chicago/press-releases/2014/alleged-associate-of-nullcrew-arrested-onfederal-
hacking-charge-involving-cyber-attacks-on-companies-and-universities>.
FARTHING, Rys. The politics of youthful anti-politics: Representing the “issue’ of youth
participation in politics, Journal of Youth Studies, 13 (2) p. 181-195, 2010.
FORTADO, L. Anonymous’ Hackers Convicted of Targeting PayPal, MasterCard, 2012,
Bloomberg Business. Available in: <http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2012-12-06/-
anonymous-hackers-convicted-of-targeting-paypal-mastercard>.
FUCHS, E. Time Warner Cable Site Defaced with Gorilla Over its New Anti-Piracy Policy,
Business Insider, 2013, Available in: <http://www.businessinsider.com.au/time-warnerhacked-
by-nullcrew-2013-3>.
FUREDI, Frank. The Politics of Fear. Beyond Left and Right. London: Continuum, 2005.
GARLAND, David. Culture of Control: Crime and Social Order in Contemporary
Society. Chicago: The Chicago University Press, 2001.
GIDDENS, Anthony. Modernity and Self Identity: Self and Society in the late modern
Age. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991.
GJELTEN, T. FBI Tries To Send Message With Hacker Arrests, National Public Radio,
2011. Acessible in: <http://www.npr.org/2011/07/20/138555799/fbi-arrests-allegedanonymous-
hackers>.
GLEICK, James. Today’s Dead End Kids. The New York Review of Books, 2014, december
18: p. 36-38.
www.culturasjuridicas.uff.br
22 Revista Culturas Jurídicas/Legal Cultures Journal, Vol. 4, Núm. 7, 2017, January/April.
HENN, Matt; WEINSTEIN, Mark. Young people and political (in)activism: why don’t young
people vote?. 2006, Policy & politics, 34 (3): 517-534.
HENN, Matt; WEINSTEIN, Mark; WRING, Dominic. A generation apart? Youth and political
Participation in Britain. 2002, British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 4
(2), p.167-192.
HOCKING, Jenny. Terror laws: ASIO, counter-terrorism and the threat to democracy.
Sydney: UNSW Press, 2004.
HOGG, Russel. Criminology, Crime and Politics Before and After 9/11. 2007, The
Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 40 (1), p.83–105.
JENNESS, Valerie. Explaining Criminalization: From Demography and Status Politics to
Globalization and Modernization. Annual Review of Sociology, 2004, 30, p. 147-171.
KAHNE, Joseph; MIDDAUGH, Ellen; ALLEN, Danielle. Youth, New Media and the Rise of
Participatory Politics, YPP Research Network Working Paper Series, n. 1, 2014, Civic
Engagement Group.
KAPLAN, D. WikiLeaks undergoing massive denial-of-service attack, Secure Computing
monthly magazine, 2012. Available in: <http://www.scmagazine.com/wikileaks-undergoingmassive-
denial-of-service-attack/article/254267>.
LEIDERMAN, J. Justice for the PayPal WikiLeaks protesters: why DDoS is free speech. The
Guardian, 23, jan. 2013. Available in:
<http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/jan/22/paypal-wikileaks-protesters-ddosfree-
speech>.
MANNING, Nathan. Young people and politics: apathetic and disengaged? A qualitative
inquiry. Koln: Lambert Academic Publishing, 2009.
www.culturasjuridicas.uff.br
23 Revista Culturas Jurídicas/Legal Cultures Journal, Vol. 4, Núm. 7, 2017, January/April.
MARTIN, Aaron. Political Participation among the Young in Australia: Testing Dalton’s Good
Citizen Thesis. Australian Journal of Political Science, 42, p. 211-26, 2012.
MATZA, David. Becoming Deviant, Prentice Hall, Edgewood Cliff, 1969.
MAYER, Karl Ulrich. The sociology of the life course and life span psychology: Diverging or
converging pathways? In U. Staudinger, M. and U. Lindenberger (Eds.). Understanding
human development: Dialogues with lifespan psychology, p. 463-481. London: Kluwer
Academic Publishers, 2003.
MCCAFFRIE, Brendan; MARSH, David. “Beyond mainstream approaches to political
participation: A response to Aaron Martin. Australian Journal of Political Science, v. 48,
n.1, p. 112–117, 2013.
MIRANEAU, Manuel. The Criminalization of Environmental Activism’, Studia
Universitatis Babes-Bolyai, 2, p. 87-103, 2014.
MOSES, A., and GARDINER, S. LulzSec hack into Murdoch’s British websites. Sydney
Morning Herald, 19 jul. 2011. Available in: <www.smh.com.au/technology/technologynews/
lulzsec-hack-into-murdochs-british-websites-20110719-1hm6r.html>.
MOUFFE, Chantal. On the Political. London: Routledge, 2005.
MUNCIE, John. Decriminalising Criminology, Proceedings. Volume 3. Papers from the
British Society of Criminology Conference, Liverpool, 1999. Editors: George Mair and
Roger Tarling. Acessible in: <http://britsoccrim.org/volume3/010.pdf>.
NBC NEWS. The Snowden Files: British Intelligence Agency describes attack on
Anonymous. Available in:
<http://msnbcmedia.msn.com/i/msnbc/sections/news/snowden_anonymous_nbc_document.pd
f>. NullCrew. 2013, @NullCrew_FTS twitter. Available in:
<https://twitter.com/NullCrew_FTS/status/309172610204315648>.
www.culturasjuridicas.uff.br
24 Revista Culturas Jurídicas/Legal Cultures Journal, Vol. 4, Núm. 7, 2017, January/April.
O’TOOLE, Therese. Engaging Young Peoples Conceptions of the Political. Children’s
Geographies, v. 1, 1, p. 71-90, 2003.
POYNTING, Scott; WHITE, Robert. Youth Work: Challenging the Soft Cop syndrome.
Youth Studies Australia, 2004, 23 (4): 39-46.
RANCIÈRE, Jacques. Dissensus: On Politics and Aesthetics. New York: Continuum, 2010.
REYES, Yanira. Law, media and political dissent: The case of the FALN, E-Ph.D, Purdue
University, 2002. Available in: <http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/dissertations/AAI3105012/>.
SACHS, Joe. Plato: Republic. Newburyport: Focus Publishing, 2007.
SALTER, Colin. Activism as Terrorism: The Green Scare, Radical Environmentalism and
Governmentality. Anarchist Developments in Cultural Studies, Ten Years After 9/11. An
Anarchist Evaluation, p. 211-238, 2011.
SAUTER, Molly. The Coming Swarm: DDOS Actions, Hacktivism, and Civil Disobedience
on the Internet. London: Bloomsbury, 2014.
SCHMITT, Carl. The Crisis of Parliamentary Democracy. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1988.
Tradução: Kennedy, E.
SCHONE, M.; ESPOSITO, R.; COLE, M.; GREENWALD, G., nd.. Exclusive: Snowden
Docs Show UK Spies Attacked Anonymous, Hackers. Available in:
<http://www.nbcnews.com/feature/edward-snowden-interview/exclusive-snowden-docsshow-
uk-spies-attacked-anonymous-hackers-n21361>.
SKRIMSHIRE, S. Demoralising Britain: ten years of Depoliticisation, in Scott, D., Graham,
J., and Baker, S., (eds), Remoralising Britain? Social ethical and Theological perspectives
on New Labour. Continuum, London. p. 38-57, 2009.
www.culturasjuridicas.uff.br
25 Revista Culturas Jurídicas/Legal Cultures Journal, Vol. 4, Núm. 7, 2017, January/April.
SLOBBE, J., and VERBERKT, S. Hacktivists: Cyberterrorists or Online Activists? An
Exploration of the Digital Right to Assembly, 2012, v.org/pdf/1208.4568.pdf
Softpedia. “Nullcrew Hacks South African ISP Directory, 450 Accounts Leaked’. Acessible
in: <http://news.softpedia.com/news/NullCrew-Hacks-South-African-ISP-Directory-450-
Account-Details-Leaked-281630.shtml>.
SUNSTEIN, Cass; and VERMEULE, Adrian. Conspiracy Theories. Harvard University Law
School, Public Law & Legal Theory Research Paper Series, 2008. Acessible in:
<http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1084585>.
TWENGE, Jean. The Narcissism Epidemic. Free Press: 2009.
VROMEN, Ariadne; COLLIN, Phillipa. Everyday youth participation? Contrasting views
from Australian policymakers and young people. Young, 18 (1): p. 97-112, 2010.
WEINSTEIN, Emily. The Personal Is Political on Social Media: Online Civic Expression
Patterns and Pathways Among Civically Engaged Youth. International Journal of
Communication, p. 210–233, 2014.
XENOS, Michael; VROMEN, Ariadne; & LOADER Brian. The great equalizer? Patterns of
social media use and youth political engagement in three advanced democracies.
Information, Communication & Society, 17 (2) p. 151-67, 2014.
Elsevier, 2013.
AOUDE, Ibrahim. Arab Americans and the Criminalization of Dissent. Social Analysis: The
International Journal of Social and Cultural Practice, 46, (1), p. 125-128, 2002.
ARVANITAKIS, James; MARREN, Siobhan. Putting the Politics back into Politics: Young
people and Democracy in Australia: Discussion paper. Sydney: University of Western
Sydney, 2009.
AUSTRALIAN FEDERAL POLICE, ND. High Tech Crime. Available in:
<http://www.afp.gov.au/en/policing/cybercrime/hightech-crime.aspx#distributed-denial-ofservice-
attacks>.
BAT-BLUE NETWORKS. NullCrew Hacks World Health Organization and Leaks 568 User
Credentials, 2012. Acessible in:
<https://www.facebook.com/BatBlueNetworks/posts/446104122090539>.
BAUERLEIN, Mark. The Dumbest Generation: How the Digital Age Stupefies Young
Americans and Jeopardizes Our Future. New York: Penguin: 2009.
BAUMAN, Zygmunt., Liquid Modernity. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2000.
BECK, Ulrich. Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity. London: Sage, 1992.
BENNETT, W. L., WELLS, Chris., and RANK, Allison. Young citizens and civic learning:
two paradigms of citizenship in the digital age. Citizenship Studies, 13(2) p. 105-120, 2009.
BERRERDA, L., 2015 cited in “The PP Criticized the Support of the Comedian Facu Pable
Iglesiuas Diaz”. Not anything goes, ABC. Available in:
www.culturasjuridicas.uff.br
20 Revista Culturas Jurídicas/Legal Cultures Journal, Vol. 4, Núm. 7, 2017, January/April.
<https://translate.google.com.au/translate?
hl=en&sl=es&u=http://www.abc.es/espana/20150110/abci-iglesias-facu-diaz-
201501091656.html&prev=search-10-January>.
BESSANT, Judith. Democracy Bytes: New Media, New Politics and Generational
Change. London: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2014.
______. Mixed Messages: Youth Participation and Democratic Practice, Australian Journal
of Political Science, 39 (2), p. 387-404, 2004.
BENKLER, Yochai. A Free Irresponsible Press: Wikileaks and the Battle Over the Soul of the
Networked Fourth Estate. Harvard. C.R.-C.L. L. Rev. 46, p. 311-397, 2011.
BRABAZON, Honor. Protecting Whose Security? Anti-terrorism Legislation and the
criminalization of Dissent, YCIS Working Paper 43, York University, Toronto, 2006.
COHEN, Cathy, and KAHNE, Joseph. Participatory Politics: New media and Youth political
Action, 2012. Available in:
<http://ypp.dmlcentral.net/sites/all/files/publications/YPP_Survey_Report_FULL.pdf>.
Access in: 16 dez. 2013.
COHEN, Stanley. Folk Devils and Moral Panics. London: MacGibbon and Kee, 1972.
COLEMAN, Gabriella. The ethics of digital direct action Denial-of-service attacks and
similar tactics are becoming more widely used as protest tools. Aljazeera, 2011. Available in:
<http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2011/08/20118308455825769.html>.
COLEMAN, Gabriella. Hacker, Hoaxer, Whitstleblower, Spy: The many faces of
Anonymous. London: Verson, 2014.
DITTRICH, D., MIRKOVIC, J., REICHER, S., et.al , Internet Denial of service attack and
Defense Mechanism. Pearson, 2005.
www.culturasjuridicas.uff.br
21 Revista Culturas Jurídicas/Legal Cultures Journal, Vol. 4, Núm. 7, 2017, January/April.
DOYLE, Charles. “Cybercrime: A Sketch of 18 U.S.C. 1030 and Related Federal Criminal
Laws, Congressional Research Service,, Washington, 7-5700, 2014, www.crs.gov RS 20830.
FARDON, Zachary, 2014 cited in US Attorney’s Office, 16 June 2014. Available in:
<http://www.fbi.gov/chicago/press-releases/2014/alleged-associate-of-nullcrew-arrested-onfederal-
hacking-charge-involving-cyber-attacks-on-companies-and-universities>.
FARTHING, Rys. The politics of youthful anti-politics: Representing the “issue’ of youth
participation in politics, Journal of Youth Studies, 13 (2) p. 181-195, 2010.
FORTADO, L. Anonymous’ Hackers Convicted of Targeting PayPal, MasterCard, 2012,
Bloomberg Business. Available in: <http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2012-12-06/-
anonymous-hackers-convicted-of-targeting-paypal-mastercard>.
FUCHS, E. Time Warner Cable Site Defaced with Gorilla Over its New Anti-Piracy Policy,
Business Insider, 2013, Available in: <http://www.businessinsider.com.au/time-warnerhacked-
by-nullcrew-2013-3>.
FUREDI, Frank. The Politics of Fear. Beyond Left and Right. London: Continuum, 2005.
GARLAND, David. Culture of Control: Crime and Social Order in Contemporary
Society. Chicago: The Chicago University Press, 2001.
GIDDENS, Anthony. Modernity and Self Identity: Self and Society in the late modern
Age. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991.
GJELTEN, T. FBI Tries To Send Message With Hacker Arrests, National Public Radio,
2011. Acessible in: <http://www.npr.org/2011/07/20/138555799/fbi-arrests-allegedanonymous-
hackers>.
GLEICK, James. Today’s Dead End Kids. The New York Review of Books, 2014, december
18: p. 36-38.
www.culturasjuridicas.uff.br
22 Revista Culturas Jurídicas/Legal Cultures Journal, Vol. 4, Núm. 7, 2017, January/April.
HENN, Matt; WEINSTEIN, Mark. Young people and political (in)activism: why don’t young
people vote?. 2006, Policy & politics, 34 (3): 517-534.
HENN, Matt; WEINSTEIN, Mark; WRING, Dominic. A generation apart? Youth and political
Participation in Britain. 2002, British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 4
(2), p.167-192.
HOCKING, Jenny. Terror laws: ASIO, counter-terrorism and the threat to democracy.
Sydney: UNSW Press, 2004.
HOGG, Russel. Criminology, Crime and Politics Before and After 9/11. 2007, The
Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 40 (1), p.83–105.
JENNESS, Valerie. Explaining Criminalization: From Demography and Status Politics to
Globalization and Modernization. Annual Review of Sociology, 2004, 30, p. 147-171.
KAHNE, Joseph; MIDDAUGH, Ellen; ALLEN, Danielle. Youth, New Media and the Rise of
Participatory Politics, YPP Research Network Working Paper Series, n. 1, 2014, Civic
Engagement Group.
KAPLAN, D. WikiLeaks undergoing massive denial-of-service attack, Secure Computing
monthly magazine, 2012. Available in: <http://www.scmagazine.com/wikileaks-undergoingmassive-
denial-of-service-attack/article/254267>.
LEIDERMAN, J. Justice for the PayPal WikiLeaks protesters: why DDoS is free speech. The
Guardian, 23, jan. 2013. Available in:
<http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/jan/22/paypal-wikileaks-protesters-ddosfree-
speech>.
MANNING, Nathan. Young people and politics: apathetic and disengaged? A qualitative
inquiry. Koln: Lambert Academic Publishing, 2009.
www.culturasjuridicas.uff.br
23 Revista Culturas Jurídicas/Legal Cultures Journal, Vol. 4, Núm. 7, 2017, January/April.
MARTIN, Aaron. Political Participation among the Young in Australia: Testing Dalton’s Good
Citizen Thesis. Australian Journal of Political Science, 42, p. 211-26, 2012.
MATZA, David. Becoming Deviant, Prentice Hall, Edgewood Cliff, 1969.
MAYER, Karl Ulrich. The sociology of the life course and life span psychology: Diverging or
converging pathways? In U. Staudinger, M. and U. Lindenberger (Eds.). Understanding
human development: Dialogues with lifespan psychology, p. 463-481. London: Kluwer
Academic Publishers, 2003.
MCCAFFRIE, Brendan; MARSH, David. “Beyond mainstream approaches to political
participation: A response to Aaron Martin. Australian Journal of Political Science, v. 48,
n.1, p. 112–117, 2013.
MIRANEAU, Manuel. The Criminalization of Environmental Activism’, Studia
Universitatis Babes-Bolyai, 2, p. 87-103, 2014.
MOSES, A., and GARDINER, S. LulzSec hack into Murdoch’s British websites. Sydney
Morning Herald, 19 jul. 2011. Available in: <www.smh.com.au/technology/technologynews/
lulzsec-hack-into-murdochs-british-websites-20110719-1hm6r.html>.
MOUFFE, Chantal. On the Political. London: Routledge, 2005.
MUNCIE, John. Decriminalising Criminology, Proceedings. Volume 3. Papers from the
British Society of Criminology Conference, Liverpool, 1999. Editors: George Mair and
Roger Tarling. Acessible in: <http://britsoccrim.org/volume3/010.pdf>.
NBC NEWS. The Snowden Files: British Intelligence Agency describes attack on
Anonymous. Available in:
<http://msnbcmedia.msn.com/i/msnbc/sections/news/snowden_anonymous_nbc_document.pd
f>. NullCrew. 2013, @NullCrew_FTS twitter. Available in:
<https://twitter.com/NullCrew_FTS/status/309172610204315648>.
www.culturasjuridicas.uff.br
24 Revista Culturas Jurídicas/Legal Cultures Journal, Vol. 4, Núm. 7, 2017, January/April.
O’TOOLE, Therese. Engaging Young Peoples Conceptions of the Political. Children’s
Geographies, v. 1, 1, p. 71-90, 2003.
POYNTING, Scott; WHITE, Robert. Youth Work: Challenging the Soft Cop syndrome.
Youth Studies Australia, 2004, 23 (4): 39-46.
RANCIÈRE, Jacques. Dissensus: On Politics and Aesthetics. New York: Continuum, 2010.
REYES, Yanira. Law, media and political dissent: The case of the FALN, E-Ph.D, Purdue
University, 2002. Available in: <http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/dissertations/AAI3105012/>.
SACHS, Joe. Plato: Republic. Newburyport: Focus Publishing, 2007.
SALTER, Colin. Activism as Terrorism: The Green Scare, Radical Environmentalism and
Governmentality. Anarchist Developments in Cultural Studies, Ten Years After 9/11. An
Anarchist Evaluation, p. 211-238, 2011.
SAUTER, Molly. The Coming Swarm: DDOS Actions, Hacktivism, and Civil Disobedience
on the Internet. London: Bloomsbury, 2014.
SCHMITT, Carl. The Crisis of Parliamentary Democracy. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1988.
Tradução: Kennedy, E.
SCHONE, M.; ESPOSITO, R.; COLE, M.; GREENWALD, G., nd.. Exclusive: Snowden
Docs Show UK Spies Attacked Anonymous, Hackers. Available in:
<http://www.nbcnews.com/feature/edward-snowden-interview/exclusive-snowden-docsshow-
uk-spies-attacked-anonymous-hackers-n21361>.
SKRIMSHIRE, S. Demoralising Britain: ten years of Depoliticisation, in Scott, D., Graham,
J., and Baker, S., (eds), Remoralising Britain? Social ethical and Theological perspectives
on New Labour. Continuum, London. p. 38-57, 2009.
www.culturasjuridicas.uff.br
25 Revista Culturas Jurídicas/Legal Cultures Journal, Vol. 4, Núm. 7, 2017, January/April.
SLOBBE, J., and VERBERKT, S. Hacktivists: Cyberterrorists or Online Activists? An
Exploration of the Digital Right to Assembly, 2012, v.org/pdf/1208.4568.pdf
Softpedia. “Nullcrew Hacks South African ISP Directory, 450 Accounts Leaked’. Acessible
in: <http://news.softpedia.com/news/NullCrew-Hacks-South-African-ISP-Directory-450-
Account-Details-Leaked-281630.shtml>.
SUNSTEIN, Cass; and VERMEULE, Adrian. Conspiracy Theories. Harvard University Law
School, Public Law & Legal Theory Research Paper Series, 2008. Acessible in:
<http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1084585>.
TWENGE, Jean. The Narcissism Epidemic. Free Press: 2009.
VROMEN, Ariadne; COLLIN, Phillipa. Everyday youth participation? Contrasting views
from Australian policymakers and young people. Young, 18 (1): p. 97-112, 2010.
WEINSTEIN, Emily. The Personal Is Political on Social Media: Online Civic Expression
Patterns and Pathways Among Civically Engaged Youth. International Journal of
Communication, p. 210–233, 2014.
XENOS, Michael; VROMEN, Ariadne; & LOADER Brian. The great equalizer? Patterns of
social media use and youth political engagement in three advanced democracies.
Information, Communication & Society, 17 (2) p. 151-67, 2014.
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